Christian Perspectives on Adolescent and Adult Development

• James M. Nelson, Ph.D.

• Department of Psychology

• Valparaiso University

Contact information

• Website: www.valpo.edu/home/faculty/jnelson

• Email: Jim.Nelson@Valpo.edu

Introduction and Overview

Panel Overview

• Topic: Development, and how

– an understanding of the context of development can improve our understanding of the growth process

– an understanding of context can help provide us with theory more appropriate to Christian psychology.

• Theoretical perspective: Jim Nelson

Panel Overview (cont.)

• Empirical and quantitative examples

– David Loomis: Cultural (worldview and epistemological) context and development of Christian therapist orientation

– Jeff Hall: Family context and development of moral reasoning

– Lisa Mitchell: Congregational context, development of moral reasoning and avoidance of risk-taking

Introduction and Overview

• According to many observers of modern culture, we live in a time of increasing interest in spirituality.

– In the secular community, this has resulted in attempts to integrate concern for spiritual issues into psychotherapy (e.g. Miller, 1999).

– Within Christianity, increasing interest has translated into increasing demand for services spiritual direction (Ruffing, 2000; Mursell, 2001) that require a sophisticated understanding of development.

• Unfortunately, our understanding of the process of spiritual development leaves much to be desired, hindering these efforts.

Introduction and Overview (cont.)

• What is the best way to understand spiritual development, and understand it from a Christian perspective? The following topics need to be considered:

– A description and critique of the current state of thinking about development from secular and Christian perspectives

– The possible use of culture as a construct for understanding developmental context

– Methodological issues in studying contextual development

Current Developmental Approaches:
Description and Critique

Psychological models

• Current developmental models in psychology fall into two groups:

– First-order theories such as those of Erikson (1950) or Levinson (1978, 1996) attempt to identify universal content issues (e.g. identity, see Erikson, 1980) and show how they are dealt with across the life span.

• For instance, Erikson, while he used extensive cross-cultural materials in the development of his theory his goal was to show “timeless insights into the adult,” taking people out of their historical and cultural context and trying to understand them “through the lens of twentieth-century psychoanalysis” (Hoare, 2002, p. 17).

Psychological models: Levinson

– Example of first-order theory: Daniel Levinson

• Early Adulthood (17-40)

– Early adult transition (17-22)

– Entering the Adult World (22-28)

– Age 30 Transition (28-33)

– Settling Down (33-40)

• Middle Adulthood (40-60)

– Midlife Transition (40-45)

– Entering Middle Adulthood (45-50)

– Age 50 Transition (50-55)

– Culmination of Middle Adulthood (55-60)

• Late Adulthood (60-)

– Late Adult Transition (60-65)

Psychological models (cont.)

– Second-order theories, sometimes referred to as structural theories, such as neo-Piagetian theories (e.g. Kohlberg; Kegan, 1982) and to some extent ego theories like Loevinger (1976) and Vaillant (1993) tend to ignore content and context and develop hierarchical models that focus on hypothesized universal processes used by individuals when dealing with life issues.

• The work of Vygotsky (1978), Labouvie-Vief (1990) and Young (1997), while unique in some respects, also fall in this latter group.

Psychological models: Kegan

– Example of second-order theory: Robert Kegan

• Stages of integration (vs. differentiation)

– At stage 1 Impulsive Balance I am my impulses

– At stage 2 Imperial Balance I am my needs

– At stage 3 Interpersonal Balance “there is no self independent of ‘other people liking.’”

– At stage 4 Institutional Balance, self identified with the organization

– At stage 5 Interindividual Balance self is separated from all the above

Psychological Models (cont.)

• Both types of psychological models ignore spiritual issues, but they raise important questions:

– 1. Does development involve periods of change and consolidation (Vaillant), or a steady process?

– 2. Does development consist of grappling with a series of new issues (Levinson) or repeated encounter with old issues (Kegan)?

– 3. Does development consist of the construction or discovery of the person?

– 4. Is there an ultimate driving process behind development, such as a desire for unity?

– 5. To what extent is development the unlearning of old things rather than learning new ones (Vygotsky)?

Psychological models (cont.)

• Current psychological models also ignore context which limits their usefulness

– As Clifford Geertz notes, an insoluble problem of universal human schemas is that they are so general that they become “empty categories” without specific content (Geertz, 1973, p. 39). In the terminology of Geertz or Walzer (1994), the language of these schemas is “thin” while ideas of meaning and ethical behavior are generally thickly constructed.

– Exception: the work of Jaan Valsiner (1997, 2000) is probably part of a new trend toward contextual awareness (Kessen, 1990), although Valsiner offers little insight into issues of spiritual development.

Psychological Integrative models

• The absence of spirituality in psychological developmental models has prompted attempts to integrate these models with theological concerns.

• Attempts to produce integrations of psychological theories with spiritual concepts have tended to emphasize psychological factors and underuse theological resources.

– Liebert (2000) follows second-order psychological theories in her exposition of adult development in spiritual direction

– Whitehead and Whitehead (1992) closely follow Erikson

– Meissner (1987) uses Erikson in his model of spiritual identity development, but Fowler in the area of faith development.

Psychological Integrative Models (cont.)

• The most influential psychological integrative model is probably that of Fowler (1981), which follows a Piagetian format.

– Faith reasoning stages include

• Primal: basic sense of trust

• Intuitive-projective: magical

• Mythic-literal: storied

• Synthetic-conventional

• Individuative-reflective

• Conjunctive faith: holding together tensions

• Universalizing faith: detachment from ideology and things

Psychological Integrative models (cont.)

• Fowler’s theory has limitations:

– First, it attempts to transcend tradition, This is clear from his definition of faith, which is “an orientation of the total person” and a “relatedness to that which is universal” (1981m pp. 14-15), but produces problems:

• His atraditional stance can be viewed as a commitment to a particular tradition (Wulff, 1993; Broughton, 1986), that of modernity (Johnson, 1996a) rather than Christianity.

• General content on religious issues, “adds nothing to the psychological explanation of spiritual development” (Helminiak, 1987, p. 121), but Christian views on human nature are richer and offer additional content beyond current psychological frameworks. This view is consistent with recent work in philosophy (e.g. MacIntyre, 1988, 1990).

Psychological Integrative Models

– Second, it is an explicitly cognitive theory, following in the tradition of Piaget.

• This limits the theory as most Christian conceptions of spiritual development include non-cognitive components, as do some modern theories of mind (Damasio, 1994).

• Certainly faith development theories need not be solely cognitive, as LaMothe (1999) has demonstrated in his Winnecottian presentation of faith development, or Sherman (2000) has shown in relation to the development of wisdom.

Theological models

• Christian theology offers rich resources for understanding spiritual development.

• Theological views of spiritual development can be found in a number of Christian traditions.

– There are similarities and differences among the approaches, even among members of the same school (e.g. Carmelites; Howells, 2002)

– They also vary in terms of the authors intent: some were primarily intended as teaching tools (McGinn, 1991, 1996), while others, especially in the Orthodox literature (e.g. the work of Peter of Damascus) were presented as descriptions of a fixed process, more like our modern theories of development.

Theological models (cont.)

• Basic 3 stage model common: purgation, illumination and union (Origen and later writers; see Underhill, 1911/1990; McGinn, 1994, p. 117)

• Sophisticated models include those from

– Carmelite spirituality: Teresa of Avila’s stages of prayer (1577/1972), or John of the Cross (1582/1987, 1585/1987).

– Orthodox literature (e.g. John Climacus, c. 600/2001 or Peter of Damascus, 1187/1984)

– Later medieval Catholic writings from the Victorine school (e.g. Richard of St. Victor, 1160/1979) and the Flemish mystics (e.g. Ruysbroeck, c. 1335/1985; c.1370/1997)

Theological models (cont.)

• Modern model-building tends to be less detailed

– The schism with Orthodoxy and controversies in Catholicism (Latourette, 1975) led to a decreased interest in spirituality outside of monastic orders in the early modern period.

– Interest in spiritual development continued in Protestantism (Mursell, 2001) although without much attempt to develop overall developmental schemas, perhaps because of the focus on justification by faith in the writings of reformers such as Luther.

– Modern writings by spiritual authors such as Merton (1974), deMello (1990) or Kelsey (1976) discuss developmental process issues but avoid overall models.

Theological Integrative models

• Attempts to integrate Christian theological and spiritual concepts with psychology have also tended to emphasize either theological or psychological resources rather than produce a true integration.

– Groeschel’s (1995) theory of the psychology of spiritual development discusses psychological issues as a background but is primarily theological, retaining the three stage model of purgative, illuminative and unitive ways.

Theological Integrative models (cont.)

– The work by James Loder (1998) is quite sophisticated, but emphasizes psychological approaches.

• Loder uses a 4-stage model of spiritual development: awakening, purgation, illumination and unification to integrate psychological and spiritual development; ego and spiritual development on on different axes which may “intersect and compliment each other” (p. 72) but largely follow different paths because “they diverge preeminently as to primary aims” of adaptation vs. unity with the divine order.

• His theory has some weaknesses, as efforts at integration become less systematic as he moves into young adult and adult development, with increasing emphasis on a psychological conceptualization and decreasing emphasis on the uniqueness of spiritual issues. Also, while Loder includes sociocultural contexts as an element in his model, this aspect of his theory is nowhere developed.

Overall critique and Summary

• The failure of integration to be fully theological and psychological raises the question: is it possible (or desirable) to put together a completely integrated model?

– My view: Perhaps the problems are due to inherent differences between the perspectives, but more likely it is due to a lack of knowledge about how the two work together in a specific religious tradition.

Overall critique

• The universalistic, acontextual point of view has been attacked from Christian and secular sources as a point of view that starves our understanding of potentially valuable content (Johnson 1996b).

– This point has also surfaced in the literature on religious experience, with authors arguing constuctionist (Katz, 1978; Proudfoot, 1985), universalist (Foreman, 1990; Almond, 1990; West, 1992) or moderate (Hollenback, 1990; McGinn, 1991) positions.

– Similar conflicts appear when attempting to define spirituality in a meaningful way (Zinnbauer et al., 1997; Emmons, 1999; Piedmont, 1999; Aumann, 1980).

Overall critique (cont.)

• Research has not been very practically oriented to how Christian churches might best promote the spiritual development of their members

• Traditional psychological and theological models raise questions/issues that must be dealt with

• Christian models of development tend to be hierarchical in nature, which is more in keeping with second-order psychological theories (e.g. Kegan, Kernberg): This is developed by Jeff Hall and Lisa Mitchell in talks that follow.

Overall critique (cont).

• A strange omission from the integrative literature on development involves the lack of reference to what may be called issues of frame.

– Frame issues are things that limit the scope of development and the options available to the developing person, such as:

• existential issues or “ultimate situations” (Jaspers, 1956; Hoffman, 1957) such as the reality suffering and death;

• biological issues such as health, or

• sociocultural roles, institutions and frameworks

Overall critique (cont.)

– There are psychological treatments of some of these issues (e.g. Yalom, 1980 on existential issues; Kleinman, 1988 on biological issues and Valsiner, 1997, 2000 on cultural issues), but with the exception of Valsiner there is little use of this in developmental theory, especially in the integration literature.

– Because religion and spirituality have an essential concern with these kinds of general human experiences and they may be related to spiritual growth (James & Samuels, 1999), some integration of this into developmental models seems warranted.

Culture as a Contextual Framework in Development

Culture

• We have seen that developmental theories need and lack a contextual framework. One possibility of an approach to context is to utilize the popular construct of culture

– An area of general interest in society and (since the 1960’s) an increasing interest in psychology.

– Culture now important in Christian thought.

• The globalization of Christianity has sensitized the Church to the impact of culture on belief and practice.

• Secularization has increased awareness of the difference between popular culture and the Christian way of life.

– Strangely, virtually no literature exists on relation between culture and spiritual development

Culture (cont.)

• Definitions of culture vary widely.

– The nature of the concept has changed over the modern period (Grenz & Franke, 2001; Tanner, 1997).

– Edward Tylor (1871): Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. (p.1)

– Geertz (1973): culture is a constructed web of meaning and significance; or people’s views of “who they think they are, what they think they are doing, and to what end they think they are doing it” (Geertz, 2000, p. 16).

– Shweder (1991): embodied mental representations

Applications of culture

• How can the inclusion of culture in the study of spiritual development help our understanding of the individual spiritual journey?

– First, we might consider Christianity as a culture, and examine the effects of Christian communities on the development of their members.

– Second, we might consider how theoretical models of culture could be applied to the study of spiritual development.

– Third, we might look at surrounding culture and its impact on spiritual development; culture could then provide a framework for integrating variables of interest into the study of spiritual development.

Applications of culture:
Christianity as culture

• Theologians have recently appropriated the concept of culture for their own use (e.g. Pannenberg, 1985; McClendon, 2000; Tanner, 1997).

– It can be argued that Christianity forms its own culture (Grenz & Franke, 2001) or “set of cultural phenomena” (McClendon, 2000, p. 65)

– It also can be argued that individual congregations as the basis of the Christian community (Karkkainen, 2002) are in a sense the primary cultural units within which Christians operate (for example see Wind & Lewis, 1994a, 1994b; Warner, 1994; Bass, 1994): Lisa Mitchell’s work depends on this kind of understanding.

Applications of culture:
Christianity as culture (cont.)

• What are the issues in considering Christian congregations as cultures that form the context for spiritual development?

– From a psychological standpoint such an approach seems natural. Organizational psychologists see “organizational culture” as influencing a host of individual and group behaviors (Wasu, Stewart & Garson, 1998).

– Grenz & Frank (2001) generally argue for the existence of Christian culture. They see the church as a self-aware community with a shared set of symbols, beliefs and values, as well as a sense of mission. The self-aware community helps constitute a group identity and the individual personal identities of the members.

Applications of culture:
Christianity as culture (cont.)

– Tanner (1997) has reservations about the existence of a unique Christian culture, as it is not clear that it is possible to identify a Christian culture that is really separate from the wider culture.

• The Christian identity is thus a “hybrid that always shares cultural forms with its wider host culture” (p. 114).

• Her argument also has some weaknesses, as it is based on the Western experience of the church; in many places around the world the distinction between Christian and local culture is quite dramatic (Newbigin, 1953/1998). It also is at odds with her own observation that overlap is an essential part of culture in the modern world.

Applications of culture:
Christianity as culture (cont.)

• Certainly a Christian culture has unique characteristics.

– It is an eschatological culture that establishes an “identity via hope” (McClendon, 2000, p. 340), and offers things that secular culture lacks.

– Its function is in part transitional. Winnecott (1958/1975, 1965/1990, 1988; Bacal & Newman, 1990; St. Clair, 2000) sees culture as a “transitional phenomenon” between dream and reality, which is especially operative in religion. Applying this to McClendon’s eschatological view, one function of a Christian community might be to act as a transitional community as individuals move through their developmental paths toward the object of their hope.

Applications of culture:
Developmental models

• One example of a developmental model used in cultural research is the acculturation and cultural identity model (Berry, 1995; Berry & Sam, 1997).

– Acculturation is the process of adopting new knowledge, values and behaviors from a culture.

– Development involves acquiring new cultural materials and forming one’s identity through narrative (Sarap & Raja, 1998), personal discovery (Pannenberg, 1985), and social processes (Berger & Luckman, 1966).

– Acculturation and spiritual development have some striking parallels; Christian spiritual development can be seen as moving away from the surrounding secular culture toward the culture of Christ and the church.

Applications of culture:
Developmental Models (cont.)

– Assuming that we view spiritual development as formation of a Christian cultural identity, how might we expect the development of identity to proceed in the Christian context? Various faith communities provide different answers to this question depending on:

• The relative importance of individual vs. communal identity (Schleiermacher, 1830/1928; McClendon, Jr., 1994), a dichotomy that is theologically questionable (Pannenberg, 1998). as has been demonstrated many times in church history (e.g Law, 1728/1978; Warren, 1978; Meissner, 1992), but is certainly present (Roof, 1993) and could be a powerful influence on development, as has been shown in a large body of cross-cultural research (Triandis, 1995; Kagitcibasi, 1997).

• This latter “communitarian” view is an emphasis in recent theology, with “community” typically defined as a local congregation or gathering of believers (Karkkainen, 2002).

Applications of culture theory:
Integration of other variables

• Culture is a broad construct that invites inclusion of a number of ideas/constructs that are potentially relevant to religious development. Examples:

– Sunden’s Role acquisition model (Belzen, 1995; Hood, Spilka, Hunsinger & Gorsuch, 1996), which looks at roletaking and identification as keys in the development and signification processes.

– Gender. Gender is a critical factor in development, which certainly has an impact on identity formation (Cross & Madson, 1997; Triandis, 1995) and spirituality (Guenther, 1992), but with few exceptions (e.g. Gilligan, 1993; Levinson, 1996), is little studied.

Applications of culture theory (cont.)

– Worldview theory (Kearney, 1984; Naugle & Holmes, 2002): See the talk by David Loomis to follow.

– Folk psychology: (Bruner, 1990).

Methodological Issues

Overall Methodological Approach

• An initial question about research approach is whether it is more appropriate to use qualitative or quantitative approaches to the topic.

– In psychology, quantitative data and analytic approaches to the study of spirituality and religion have been the norm,, and advantages to this method of inquiry are well known (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger & Gorsuch, 1996). A quantitative approach to spiritual development is also attractive because of the recent development of measurement instruments, such as the Spiritual Transcendence Index (Seidlitz et al., 2002), the Spiritual Assessment Inventory (Hall & Edwards, 1996) and others (Hill & Hood, 1999).

Quantitative Methods: Problems

• However, the case is not totally clear as there are apparent problems connected with an all-quantitative approach

– Little is known about development (especially spiritual development), from a cultural/contextual point of view, so it is premature to build a specific model with clearly defined constructs which could be tested empirically.

– Available quantitative measures are based on universalizing constructs and lack cultural sensitivity

• Exception: measures of spiritual beliefs and practices (Gorsuch & Miller, 1999).

Problems (cont.)

– It is questionable whether a “big picture” theory involving culture and development could ever be expressed in toto in a model that could be tested totally with the use of quantitative methods due to the difficulty in falsifying complex models (Popper, 1935/2002, pp. 126-128).

– Ratner (1997) argues that due to the nature of cultural data there are inherent problems with the use of quantitative collection techniques and analytic procedures.

• So despite the successes of quantitative research, that approach has limitations and qualitative approaches also need to be considered.

Qualitative Methods: Possibilities

• An overview of the possibilities is provided by Moustakas (1994). His analysis can be collapsed into three general categories:

– ethnographic or participatory methods,

– hermeneutic approaches (his view of grounded research theory is strongly hermeneutic and fits here; see also Strauss & Corbin, 1990) and

– phenomenological methods.

Qualitative Methods: Phenomenology

• Has its basis in philosophy, especially the work of Husserl (1954/1970).

• Basic thrust is to examine the subjective experience of the individual from a point of “epoche, “a detached objective stance taken by the investigator.

• Since the method focuses on subjective experience, phenomenological analysis is typically applied when we wish to understand a certain type of experience or the reactions of people to a certain type of situation (see Moustakas, 1994).

Qualitative Methods: Ethnographic Method

• Developed by anthropologists like Boas (1911/2002) and Malinowski (1922/1984).

• Typically involves participant observation and interviews of expert informants (Bernard, 2002).

• Provides description of the culture, which could include aspects like rituals, visual culture, attitudes toward space or conversion (Donahue, 1995; Hopson & Openlander, 1995; Morgan, 1998; Lane, 2001; Eliade, 1959; Norris, 2001).

• This approach has been successfully applied to the study of congregations (e.g. Hopewell, 1987; Dokecki, Newbrough & O’Gorman, 2001).

Qualitative Methods: Hermeneutic Approaches

• In general, hermeneutic techniques are well designed to help understand and interpret development conceptualized as narrative.

– Hermeneutics is based on a long philosophical tradition, most recently the work of Gadamer (1989) and Ricoeur (1974, 1976, 1981, 1992, 1995). The writings of Paul Ricoeur are especially relevant, due in part to his work on religious hermeneutics

– Focus is on understanding and interpretation of meaning, which is different than understanding how something works (Polanyi, 1962, p. 330).

– Views of a situation are (in the view of some) always influenced by factors such as the acquisition, justification or maintenance of power (e.g. Foucault, 1965). Ratner (1997) encourages that verbal statements be interpreted by comparing statements and behavior through a process of triangulation.

Hermeneutics (cont.)

• Hermeneutic methodology has not been popular in psychology, but interest is currently on the rise.

– Packer & Addison (1989): hermeneutic psychology.

– Belzen and others (1997): hermeneutical approaches in the psychology or religion.

– Hermeneutic analysis of narrative is influential in the fields of psychotherapy (Roberts & Holmes, 1999; Young, 1997), family therapy (White & Epstein, 1990), psychoanalysis (e.g. Almond & Almond, 1996) and cultural psychology (Howard, 1991).

– Ties in with well-known psychological approaches to life history (Levinson, 1978, 1996; Beecham, Anthon & Kurtz, 1998; McAdams, 1993; Progoff, 1992).

Panel Abstracts and Summary

Abstract

• Since the publication of works by Jung and Erik Erikson in the mid-20^th century, tremendous effort has been devoted to constructing theories of adolescent and adult development. First-order theories such as those of Erikson attempt to identify universal content issues (e.g. identity) and show how they are dealt with across the life span. Second-order or neo-Piagetian theories (e.g. Kohlberg) tend to ignore content and context and focus on hypothesized universal processes that individuals use when dealing with life issues.

Abstract (cont.)

• Unfortunately, these contain significant deficiencies, especially when viewed from a Christian context. The theories are based on modernist assumptions that tend to ignore the effects of particular cultural and environmental frameworks on the nature and ordering of developmental tasks, as well as the role of spirituality in the developmental process. This is especially true for second-order developmental theories that conceptualize development without reference to specific content or context. Unfortunately, many contemporary Christian views of change have similar problems as they are built on these same flawed first and second order conceptualizations of development.

Abstract (cont.)

• A theological and philosophical critique of current theory reveals potential pieces that can be used to construct Christian views of development that are sensitive to issues of culture, community and tradition. Following this critique, the results of three empirical studies are presented that provide models of how to study developmental process from a more particular, contextual perspective. Two studies look at the role of religious, family and educational context in the development of moral beliefs and behavior in adolescents. A third study looks at how particular, contextualized worldviews formed during development affect the practice of psychotherapy. As predicated, all the studies found substantial relationships between particular, contextualized belief and action. The philosophical, theological and practical implications of the theoretical issues and research findings are discussed.

Summary

• Current theories of development ignore the particular context of growth and role of spirituality across the lifespan. Components of a Christian contextual view of development are suggested, and the results of three research studies highlight how this approach helps us understand the genesis of moral belief and activity.

Learning Objectives

• 1. The basics of current psychological theory of adolescent and adult development.

• 2. The weakness of current theory from a Christian theological and philosophical perspective, and ideas about how Christian theories of development might be constructed.

• 3. How psychological inquiry based on a particularized, context-sensitive, Christian view of development might be conducted.

• 4. Some examples of how developmental context affects particular beliefs and worldview, and how this affects moral behavior and decision making.

References

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References (cont.)

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• Belzen., J. (1997). Hermeneutical approaches in psychology of religion. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

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References (cont.)

• Berry, J. (1995). Psychology of acculturation. In N. Goldberger & J. Verooff (Eds.), The culture and psychology reader (pp. 457-488). New York: New York University

• Berry, J. & Sam, D. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In J. Berry, M. Seagall & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross cultural psychology: Volume 3: Social behavior and applications (2nd Ed.) (pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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References (cont.)

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References (cont.)

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References (cont.)

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References (cont.)

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